Category: Lab Notes: Biochemistry

Glycogenesis is the biochemical process through which glucose is converted into glycogen for short-term energy storage. It involves glucose-6-phosphate, glucose-1-phosphate, UDP-glucose, glycogenin, glycogen synthase, and the glycogen branching enzyme. Insulin signaling strongly promotes glycogenesis after carbohydrate intake, while liver and skeletal muscle use glycogen stores for different physiological purposes. Understanding glycogenesis provides a foundation for understanding glycogen metabolism, glucose homeostasis, insulin sensitivity, insulin resistance, and exercise metabolism.

Nonessential amino acids are not nutritionally required exclusively from the diet because the body can generally synthesize them. They include important metabolic molecules such as alanine, aspartate, glutamate, and serine, while several related amino acids may become conditionally essential during growth, illness, injury, or metabolic stress.

Amino acids are the molecular building blocks of proteins and important metabolic regulators. They participate in protein synthesis, energy metabolism, nitrogen metabolism, cellular signaling, neurotransmitter production, immune function, antioxidant defense, and tissue maintenance.

Essential amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. They are required for protein synthesis and contribute to muscle metabolism, cellular signaling, energy production, immune function, and numerous metabolic pathways.

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are the essential amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine. They play important roles in protein synthesis, muscle metabolism, energy production, nutrient sensing, mTOR signaling, nitrogen metabolism, exercise physiology, and metabolic health.

Phenylalanine is an essential aromatic amino acid involved in protein synthesis and the production of tyrosine, which contributes to important metabolic and neurotransmitter pathways. Learn about its functions, food sources, supplementation, dosage, safety and scientific research.

Valine is an essential branched-chain amino acid involved in protein synthesis, muscle metabolism and energy production. Learn about valine’s functions, potential benefits, food sources, supplementation, dosage, safety and scientific research.

Alanine is an important amino acid involved in protein formation, energy metabolism, muscle function, glucose regulation and nitrogen transport. Learn about alanine’s functions, food sources, supplementation, dosage, safety and scientific research.

Glycine is one of the most important amino acids in the human body. Learn about its biological functions, potential health benefits, dietary sources, supplementation, dosage, safety and the latest areas of scientific research.

Thiol–disulfide exchange is a reversible reaction central to protein folding, disulfide bond rearrangement, redox regulation, and protein quality control. Learn its mechanism and biological applications.

Protein neddylation is an important post-translational modification involving the attachment of NEDD8 to target proteins. Learn how neddylation regulates cullin-RING ubiquitin ligases, protein degradation, cell-cycle progression, DNA repair, cellular signaling, and cancer biology.

Post-translational modifications are essential regulators of cell migration. Discover how phosphorylation, ubiquitination, acetylation, SUMOylation, methylation, and lipid modifications control cytoskeletal dynamics, focal adhesions, cell polarity, and cancer invasion.

Protein nitrosylation is an important redox-dependent post-translational modification, with S-nitrosylation regulating cysteine residues and influencing protein activity, signaling, metabolism, mitochondrial function, immunity, and disease.

Protein carbonylation is an important oxidative post-translational modification associated with reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, protein damage, aging, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and disease. Learn how carbonylated proteins form, affect cellular function, and are detected.

Protein AMPylation is a dynamic post-translational modification in which AMP is covalently attached to proteins. Discover its mechanisms, enzymes, substrates, biological functions, and importance in cellular regulation and bacterial pathogenesis.