Category: Lab Notes

ER stress arises when misfolded proteins accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum, overwhelming its folding capacity. Through IRE1, PERK and ATF6 signalling, the unfolded protein response restores proteostasis, reduces protein load and protects cells from stress‑induced damage.

Ferroptosis is a regulated form of cell death characterised by iron‑dependent lipid peroxidation and catastrophic membrane damage. Unlike apoptosis, necroptosis…

The DNA damage response is a cellular defense system that detects DNA damage, coordinates repair, regulates cell-cycle checkpoints, and protects the stability of the genome.

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a regulated biological process that eliminates damaged or unnecessary cells through apoptosis, autophagic cell death and regulated necrosis. By maintaining tissue homeostasis and supporting stress adaptation, PCD is essential for development and long‑term organismal health.

Acute inflammation is a rapid, short-term response to injury or infection. Learn about its causes, symptoms, inflammatory cells, immune response, resolution, and role in healing.

Inflammation is a natural response to injury, infection, and other harmful stimuli. Learn about its types, causes, symptoms, immune mechanisms, healing, and effects on health.

The immune response is the body’s natural defense against infections and harmful substances. Learn about innate and adaptive immunity, immune cells, antibodies, and immune memory.

Replication stress occurs when DNA replication forks stall or collapse, generating genomic instability and driving tumour evolution. Through ATR–CHK1 signalling, fork protection and homologous recombination repair, cells stabilise damaged forks and prevent catastrophic chromosomal breakage.

The MRN complex, composed of MRE11, RAD50 and NBS1, is the primary sensor of DNA double‑strand breaks and a central regulator of genome stability. By activating ATM, initiating homologous recombination and stabilising damaged chromosomes, MRN safeguards cells against genomic instability and disease.

Necroptosis is a regulated necrotic cell‑death pathway driven by RIPK1–RIPK3–MLKL signalling. Through membrane permeabilisation and inflammatory activation, necroptosis eliminates infected or damaged cells when apoptosis is blocked, shaping immunity and disease progression.

RIPK3 is a central necroptotic kinase that phosphorylates MLKL and drives regulated necrotic cell death. Through necrosome formation with RIPK1 and activation of inflammatory signalling, RIPK3 shapes immunity, tissue injury and disease progression.

ATM, ATR, DNA-PK, and p53 are key regulators of the DNA damage response. Learn how these pathways detect DNA damage, coordinate repair, control the cell cycle, and protect genome stability.

Protein misfolding occurs when proteins fail to achieve or maintain their correct three-dimensional structures. Explore its causes, cellular consequences, quality-control mechanisms, and connection to disease.

Therapeutic intervention includes a range of medical strategies, such as medication, surgery, rehabilitation, lifestyle changes, and advanced therapies, designed to prevent, manage, and treat disease.

An organism is any living system capable of carrying out essential life processes such as growth, metabolism, response to stimuli, and reproduction. This article explores what organisms are, how they function, and how they are classified across the major groups of life.