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Protein SUMOylation is an important post-translational modification that regulates protein activity, localization, stability, molecular interactions, gene expression, DNA repair, and cellular stress responses. Learn about SUMO proteins, Ubc9, SUMO ligases, SENPs, SUMO–ubiquitin crosstalk, and SUMO proteomics.

Protein methylation is an important post-translational modification that regulates protein function, chromatin structure, gene expression, signaling, and cellular metabolism. Learn about lysine and arginine methylation, methyltransferases, demethylases, histone methylation, methylproteomics, and disease.

Protein acetylation is an important post-translational modification that regulates protein activity, stability, localization, interactions, gene expression, and metabolism. Learn about lysine acetylation, acetyltransferases, deacetylases, histone acetylation, acetylomics, and the role of acetylation in disease.

Protein phosphorylation is a reversible post-translational modification that regulates protein activity, stability, localization, interactions, and cellular signaling. Learn about protein kinases, phosphatases, phosphorylation sites, signaling pathways, phosphoproteomics, disease mechanisms, and therapeutic applications.

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are biochemical changes that occur during or after protein synthesis and regulate protein structure, activity, stability, localization, interactions, and degradation. This overview introduces the major types of PTMs, their biological functions, mechanisms, role in disease, and methods used to study protein modifications.

Chronic inflammation is a long-lasting immune response that can affect tissues and contribute to various health conditions. Learn about its causes, symptoms, effects, diagnosis, and management.

Protein folding is the process by which newly synthesized proteins acquire their functional three-dimensional structures. Discover how folding occurs, what influences it, and how cells manage misfolded proteins.

ATF6 is an ER stress‑responsive transcription factor that enhances protein‑folding capacity and strengthens ER‑associated degradation. After trafficking to the Golgi and undergoing regulated proteolysis, ATF6 activates genes that restore ER proteostasis during unfolded protein accumulation.

Apoptosis is a controlled form of programmed cell death that removes damaged or unnecessary cells without causing inflammation. Through coordinated activation of extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, apoptosis maintains tissue homeostasis and protects organisms from disease.

ER stress arises when misfolded proteins accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum, overwhelming its folding capacity. Through IRE1, PERK and ATF6 signalling, the unfolded protein response restores proteostasis, reduces protein load and protects cells from stress‑induced damage.

Ferroptosis is a regulated form of cell death characterised by iron‑dependent lipid peroxidation and catastrophic membrane damage. Unlike apoptosis, necroptosis…

The DNA damage response is a cellular defense system that detects DNA damage, coordinates repair, regulates cell-cycle checkpoints, and protects the stability of the genome.

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a regulated biological process that eliminates damaged or unnecessary cells through apoptosis, autophagic cell death and regulated necrosis. By maintaining tissue homeostasis and supporting stress adaptation, PCD is essential for development and long‑term organismal health.

ATM is a key protein kinase in the DNA damage response. Discover how it detects DNA double-strand breaks, activates signaling pathways, regulates the cell cycle, and helps maintain genome stability.

ATR is a key protein kinase that protects cells from replication stress and DNA damage. Explore how ATR detects single-stranded DNA, stabilizes replication forks, activates CHK1, and maintains genome stability.