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Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, encompassing the diversity of genes, species, and ecosystems. It represents the…

Evolutionary biology is a branch of biology that studies the processes, mechanisms, and patterns underlying the origin and diversification of…

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how an individual’s genetic makeup influences their response to drugs, combining principles of pharmacology (the…

Addison’s disease, also known as primary adrenal insufficiency, is a rare but serious endocrine disorder characterized by the inadequate production…

Cushing’s syndrome is an endocrine disorder caused by prolonged exposure to excessive levels of cortisol, a glucocorticoid hormone produced by…

Population genetics is a branch of evolutionary biology that studies the distribution, frequency, and changes of genetic variation within and…

Methicillin is a semi-synthetic β-lactam antibiotic that was developed in the late 1950s as part of the penicillin class of…

Multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDR-TB) refers to strains of the bacterium that cause tuberculosis (TB) but are resistant to at least…

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a highly problematic bacterial pathogen that has become a symbol of the global antibiotic resistance…

Antibiotic resistance is the ability of microorganisms—particularly bacteria, but also fungi, viruses, and parasites—to withstand the effects of drugs designed…

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), also known as lateral gene transfer, is the movement of genetic material between organisms in a…

Umbellularia californica, commonly known as the California bay laurel, Oregon myrtle, or pepperwood, is an evergreen tree native to the…

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium found naturally in soil and on plant surfaces.  It is best known…

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil-dwelling, Gram-negative bacterium best known for its unique ability to transfer genetic material into plants. Belonging…

Agricultural biotechnology is the application of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular biology, tissue culture, and bioinformatics, to…